Lan Operating Systems Scenarios

Read the three scenarios below, then answer the questions that follow each scenario. 1. You are the network administrator for a new company that has 10 users and plans to add five more users within a year. The files need to be accessed by all 10 users and each user must have different security rights. What kind of network would you install and how would the pieces and components of this network relate to each other? Define each component. For this situation, I would first recommend a server, which an administrator can assign different security rights. Second, I would recommend a star topology network with a central switch. A star topology is the easiest topology to manage and add other devices. The switch is the best central device to use to segment traffic and alleviate collisions that would occur from a hub. The components such as the nodes would connect to the switch, which would allow communication with the other nodes or devices. In addition, Ethernet cables would be needed to connect to the back of the PC or NIC card. 2. You are the network administrator for a company that has a peer-to-peer network. How would the pieces and components of this network relate to each other? Define all of the components of this type of network. In a peer-to-peer network, all of the devices connected to the network share each other’s resources. This is common in a LAN network that does not have a server. 3. You are the administrator of a client-server environment. What kind of network would you install and how would the pieces and components of this network relate to each other? Define each component of a typical client-server environment. In this scenario, I would again recommend a star topology due to its manageability and scalability. In this model, one would need computers, server, cables, and operating systems. The nodes would go through the switch or router and then that device would get those resources from the serever..

Isllc Standard 2

Running Head: BENCHMARK ASSESSMENT YELLOW GROUP Understanding by Design: ISLLC Standard 2 Benchmark Assessment: Deborah D. Harris Grand Canyon University: EDA 534: Educational Administration Foundation and Framework September 12, 2012 Unwrapping the ISLLC Standards: Standard 2 Concepts and Skills T Chart What administrators â€Å"need to know† and â€Å"be able to do† Concepts (Nouns) – underline |Skills (Verbs) – highlight/circle | |â€Å"knowledge† |â€Å"admin will be able to do† | |List Concept (list specific knowledge of concept) |Record Skills |Level of Blooms | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Big Ideas/Enduring Understandings: Represent the main ideas, conclusions, or generalizations about the â€Å"unwrapped† concepts and skills in a focused instructional unit of study. Ask yourself: â€Å"What do is the big idea of the standard? What do I want my staff to remember long after they leave the room? | | | Essential Questions : What engaging questions will lead administrators to discover the â€Å"big ideas† of Standard 2? Essential questions should be written in an open-ended response and should match the rigor of the concepts and skills outlined within the standard. Essential Questions: | | | |Knowledge Indicators: What the school leader needs to know in order to promote the success of all students? | | | | | | | | | Disposition Indicators: Denotes an individual’s beliefs, values, and type of commitment that tend to be most effective in a school situation. | | | | | | | | Performance Indicators and Skills: What should an educational leader be able to do effectively to move a chose institution from the existing state of performance to the desire state of performance? | | | | | | | | References Wiggins, G. , & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design (2nd ed. ). Alexandria, VA: ASCD The Council of Chief State School Officers. Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium: Sta ndards for School Leaders (1996). Atherton J S (2011) Learning and Teaching; Bloom's taxonomy [On-line: UK] retrieved 5 September 2012 from http://www. learningandteaching. info/learning/bloomtax. htm

Tourism Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Tourism - Assignment Example After an analysis of the existing environmental regulations of the Seven Sisters Country Park, this dissertation will identify proposals which will reduce the negative impact of tourism and increase its positive aspects. Seven Sisters Country Park (SSCP) is a well known ecological landmark in the Sussex County. Seven Sisters Country Park encompasses a wide variety of animal habitats and scenic sites inside its 279 hectare periphery. The Seven Sisters Country Park takes its given name from the well-known chalk cliffs of the Sussex coast. This coastline has been declared as a heritage site and the southern periphery of the park offers a good view of the coastline. The Park encompasses an unique ecosphere, one of the extremely rare undisturbed river estuary system in South East England, and This ecosphere is of unique interest to the academics of a variety of disciplines. Seven Sisters Country Park is within the following administrative bodies the Sussex Downs chapter of the Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), the Sussex Heritage Coast, and Seven Sisters Voluntary Marine Conservation Area (SSVMCA). The Park provides an environment of extraordinary splendor and also provides various opportunities for privacy and isolation. The Seven Sisters Country Park also provides the locale for an unusually varied flora and fauna, making the Seven Sisters Country Park an attractive destination for the visitors. About 360 000 visitors visit the Seven Sisters Country Park every year, The location of Seven Sisters Country Park makes it an ideal stopover for the visitors many using the Park as a gateway to the Cuckmere Valley and the famous Heritage Coast. Monetary resources and commitment are required to ensure that the Seven Sisters Country Park reflects the outstanding quality of its surroundings and the hopes of the public. Current environmental issues and research on sustainable tourism The sustainable development is often defined as "development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs"; in the modern scenario concepts such as 'environmentally aware businesses' 'green industry', 'ecologically sensitive modernisation' are used widely in modern management (Mol, 1995; Jnicke, 1993; Schmidheiny, 1992). This definition is unclear and is open to multiple interpretations; however it has turned out to be the guiding standard and the basis for developing the economic and environmental policy of many countries in the First and Third worlds. Modern industry has also accepted the perils of polluting the environment. The World Tourism Organization has defined sustainable tourism as "tourism which meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future" (Stabler,1997) Changes in preferences of the common man who attributed a high value to an unspoiled habitat as a holiday destination contributed considerably to the value of the environment as one the most important components of the tourism business, and has led to various forms of tourisms like rural tourism ,nature tourism, ecotourism etc. These adapatations of tourism are

The ethic of equal opportunity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The ethic of equal opportunity - Essay Example The concessions came into vogue in the 1960s and 1970s. Preferential treatment programs to the above categories of the American population is not a concession, they are entitled for it. It is a petty societal gesture for the centuries of subjugation, physical violence and mental torture, destruction of the native culture and all sorts of negativities practiced against them especially on the African Americans. Other racial minorities and women also have been at the receiving end. Thus the initiatives of some firms and institutions to recruit a fixed number of minority and women candidates was a welcome relief and that enabled them to change and improve their lifestyles and provide better education to children. The above arrangements have decidedly worked to the advantage of minorities and women. At the middle class level perceptible changes are seen but several inequalities continue to plague the American corporate world. About 97% of corporate senior executives are white. When the to p decision makers are white it is futile to expect of them not to work and frame policies that are beneficial to the white community. Reservation is one of the options to remove inequalities but it is certainly not the panacea to remove all inequalities. Criticism springs forth from two quarters. From whites and a section of the blacks which has resulted in friction amongst the working class. The grievance of the whites is that the policy affects their employment opportunities. The black scholars oppose it and claim that the programs victimize and stigmatize the minorities and this has led to friction amongst the blacks and whites on the one hand and also amongst the different groups of blacks. Reservations may not be a perfect and rational remedy, but the wise saying goes that desperate situations need desperate remedies. The gross injustice done to the African Americans for over three centuries was the desperate situation in their history. They were totally helpless from all ends and the white community enjoyed at their cost. The mansions they built were through the sweat and blood of the slave labor. The atrocities committed by the whites can be forgiven but the historical facts can never be forgotten. So, quotas and reservations are the just alternatives to overcome the racial and sex barriers in the American society. As such, preferential treatment programs are morally justified. If there is one post and there are two applicants for the same, when one of them is selected, the other one is bound to feel discriminated. This is the natural human reaction. But preferential treatment programs have a broader perspective as they are based on the grounds of distributive justice. Society is like the scale of justice and both arms of the scale are equally important. Turn the pages of American history, one arm of the scale had to bear the heavy burden for centuries. As a result of past discrimination, minorities and women were denied the share of opportunities that were due to them. Though discrimination has now ended from the legal perspective, subtle discriminatory policies and practices continue to pervade business organizations and educational establishments. As such, preferential treatment programs seek to lessen inequalities and justice demands this should happen. â€Å"The first premise put forth by Wasserstrom was that race is still a significant factor in our

Rise of big business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rise of big business - Essay Example Presence of abundant iron ore provided found use as railroad ties, bridges and buildings, while coal replaced wood as fuel to drive steam engines, replacing wood. Moreover, factories that had been built by the Union were not shutdown after the war ended, but were converted for peacetime purposes. The agricultural industry represented a significant portion of the American economy, which saw the increased output in production of key crops such as wheat and corn. Therefore, this prompted an increase in demand for labor to fill various positions mills, mines and factories, which were serviced by the huge waves of immigrants at the time (Tindall and Shi, 838-840). Distinctive Features of Businesses Before the industrial revolution, goods were manufactured using traditional ways by mean of cottage industries. Moreover, these goods were produced in small-scale quantities, as the rate of production was slow and inefficient. This all changed with the introduction of manufacturing factories, w hich enhanced efficiency, increased production and boosted the economy. Despite the heavy profits gains, the workers did not enjoy much of it, as their wages were low, in addition, they were also required to work long hours and in unhealthy and dangerous working conditions. The businesses received complaints concerning the lack of having good working environment, since in the factory system, large numbers of workers were brought together in a bid to increase productivity through specialization. However, materials and semi-finished goods were often carried from one place to another for further processing or packing. Businesses benefited from new inventions, which boosted production at a cheaper rate, thus raising the profit margins. Railroads provided an exceptional opportunity to expand the market generating more profits with the growing demand of goods and services. Thus, the growing network of transport led to the establishment of towns, which would serve as new stations for busin esses and industries. Therefore, the growing industries created job opportunities for people, which improved their economic status. In addition, business organizations were formed through the formation of trusts, which specialized in the provision of different goods and services to the society. For instance, some family businesses specialized in banking services while others in the mining industry. This specialization ensured efficiency in production of goods and services, consequently, the leading businesses commanded a larger market share, which enhanced monopoly in the industry. However, this created economic powers among few families. During this period, the American political organization lacked vitality and productivity, as it was marred with corruption and moral decadency. Moreover, politicians, who would appoint their friends and supporters to government jobs, owned large businesses. This assured the politicians of a loyal group of supporters in future elections. This is in conflict with the Laissez-faire theory that the government should have a limited role business. Vertical and Horizontal Growth Vertical expansion of businesses is achieved when a company takes over its suppliers and distributors operations, gaining control over the quality and cost of production of its goods. Vertical growth in businesses

The Valuation of Real Option in the Corporate Finance Assignment

The Valuation of Real Option in the Corporate Finance - Assignment Example Due to the flexibilities viewed in management, actual real options are quite to relate properly to the size of the project, the operation of the project and the timing of the project once it has been established. In all cases used, every upfront expenditure that has not been recovered yet and related to this type of flexibility refers to the option premium. Additionally, real options apply in the valuation of the stock. There are different types of real options. The first one is options that relate to the size of the project (Angelis, 2002). This is whereby the scope of the project is not certain, constitutes are optional and the flexibility of the size of various facilities is valuable. In real options to expand, the project is designed with capability in excess of the output levels that are expected for it to give a high rate. The management gets the option of expansion that is exercising the options in case the given conditions go out to be favorable. Projects having expansion options cost more in establishing, the excess referred to as the option premium. In real options to contract, the project is designed in a way that the given output may be contracted in the future in case the conditions become unfavorable. Option exercise consists of one forgoing these future expenses. According to Angelis (2002), this is the same as put option and the excess upfront expense is the option premium. In real options to expand, projects are developed in a way that it can operate dynamically. The second type of real option is options that relate to timing and the project life. In this type of category, growth options are the most generic because they have options of exercising the projects that are profitable when initiated. When initiating the project, the management has the flexibility at the time the project needs to start.  Ã‚  

How Willy Loman (and Biff) Challenge Traditional Notions of Tragedy in Essay

How Willy Loman (and Biff) Challenge Traditional Notions of Tragedy in Miller's 'Death of a Salesman' - Essay Example All these aspects turn his life upside down, making the play a tragedy – a conflict not only in the mind of Willy Loman, but also his son Biff, who seeks to find a solution for the turmoil of thoughts that waft past his mind like a raging sea. The play seeks to portray two different American dreams – one where wealth and success are the answer to a happy life, and the other where happiness is the answer to a successful and wealthy lifestyle; both taking place within the same household. However, the play is different from the traditional notions of tragedy; instead of simply being a story where the protagonist fails in life, suffers extreme sorrow because of the inability to cope with a stressful situation, it is a painful story about the relationship between a father and a son and how one’s tragedy becomes the other’s awakening to a better life. Willy Loman is an old man and over the course of time, he faces the delusion of being able to achieve the Americ an dream of simple success by his sales business. He is desperate for his sons to triumph in what he always wanted to and could not and that can also be witnessed in the manner in which he killed himself, leaving behind a handsome inheritance with which Biff could follow in his father’s wake. ... Willy, on the other hand, was stuck in the labyrinth of life with no desire within himself to find a way out. Many critics write that his surname Loman is actually a pun on the word ‘low-man’ or the low self-esteem that he had for himself considering that he never felt happy about himself or his life. It is pertinent to note that no tragic hero puts himself in the situation knowingly; even if he does so, he always tries to find a way out of the mess that he has created for himself. Willy on the other hand, had no will within him to get out of what he had fallen into. He was lying entrapped within a web of his own lies and delusions that he was not willing to give up on; perhaps life to him was a mere step away from achieving the American dream and he blamed the same on the time and place that he was in life at the time, and thus wanted his sons to carry his name forward by finishing what he had started. However, by thinking about such propaganda all day, he often forgot to understand the turmoil of emotion that his family was undergoing; the love and affection that they had for him and the mental support that they provided him with. When his son Ben states â€Å"The jungle is dark, but full of diamonds,† (Miller, Arthur) a metaphor is presented on the death that the salesman took upon himself. Willy’s act of committing suicide was rough like a diamond and he means to say that Willy represents every other salesman in the country trying to realize his dream without understanding the dangers that were obstructing him from doing so, and all of them together make up the entire concrete and commercial jungle where they are trying their best to understand their material capacities. The only place where

Background Information Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Background Information - Essay Example ortfolio Strategy group develops a â€Å"Monthly Lead List† which is used by marketing department for the purpose of identification of customers that are part of our portfolio. The list undergoes strict quality checks by an independent Quality Control Analyst, who validates the data by utilizing critical business logic and by using QC results tab for result presentation. The US Bank’s Data Management and Analytics group prepares the Month-end-marketing Metrics, which is also utilized by the marketing department to develop a report that provides guidance regarding marketing sales goals, actual and budgeted costs of marketing, cost per application, cost per lead and the associated variances. Interaction with legal and compliance department for approval of the marketing material that is under development for the purpose of compliance to relevant laws is also carried out by marketing department. During the period before June 1, 2014 approvals for marketing material was only sought from the legal department, but now the marketing department utilizes US Bank’s â€Å"ticket management system† for this purpose. So, now marketing material is approved by compliance department after it has been approved by the legal department. Based on audit, the rating for Marketing review and Portfolio strategy has been labeled â€Å"Effective†. Policy and procedures related to quality control process for marketing lead list have been prepared and released by the Business unit. Whether adequate Quality Control was implemented by the independent analyst or not, could not be ascertained, since supporting documents were insufficient to support the analyst’s position. The team is in the process of implementing control measures which is an indication that they are aware of the prevailing

A comparative analysis of shareholders rights in differnt Essay

A comparative analysis of shareholders rights in differnt jurisdictions - Essay Example nd China. The recent financial crisis and convergence of accounting standards through IFRS have attracted the attention of world leaders towards the importance of corporate governance practices in various countries. Whether the shareholders possess enough rights and exercise these rights to safeguard their interests has been much debated because despite the presence of the board, corporations have failed. The analysis of shareholder rights has been facilitated by comparison of three companies from each of the three countries. The chosen companies are Balfour Beatty Plc, KBR Inc and CNOOC Limited. The comparison is based on each of the three companies’ disclosures regarding the shareholder rights in their annual reports and websites. 1.1.1 Background of Research Managers are responsible for the administration of day-to-day operations of the corporation. The shareholders exercise their rights and control in large corporation through board of directors. The directors of the organ ization are entrusted with the responsibility of sound corporate governance practices through direction, oversight and representation of shareholders. Generally, shareholders of a corporation do not engage in the management of corporation but appoint managers to carry out the business operations. However, this may not be the case when the managers own shares of the corporations in the form of share options. Exercised worldwide, this is one way to align the managers’ interests with that of the shareholders. Corporations mainly issue two types of shares, preference shares and common shares. The preference shareholders get the priority for dividends and when the corporation is liquidated, they get preference to claim over the common shareholders. However, preference shareholders do not have voting rights. Common shareholders, on the other hand, reserve the rights to vote on appointment of board members, decisions concerning dissolving of the corporation, and other fundamental ch anges in corporation such as changes in capital structure from increase in number of outstanding shares. In general, voting involves issuing a proxy card to each registered shareholders. A proxy is a person who is authorised to carry out the instructions from the shareholder. In the annual shareholders’ meeting, he/she will cast the vote on behalf of the shareholders, in case the shareholder is not able to directly vote (Davis 2003, p.34). The rights of shareholders increase with the increasing ownership. For example, in many countries, a shareholder owning a specified percentage like 5% has the right to place an issue on the agenda in the shareholders’ meeting or a majority shareholder can force a formal audit of the financial statements. In practice, the rights and entitlements with the ownership of the shares are seldom fully utilized by the shareholders. 1.1.2 Aims & Objectives In order to reach any conclusion and provide recommendations related to the shareholder rights, it is necessary to formulate the objectives of the study, which are as follows: 1. To compare and contrast the provisions of shareholders rights in corporate governance frameworks in UK, USA and China. 2. To analyze the extent to which the shareholders in the three countries exercise their rights by comparing three companies, each from the three countrie

Response paper to this qustionIn Candide, what are the various Essay

Response paper to this qustionIn Candide, what are the various attitudes, ideas, and behaviors that Voltaire is lampooning - Essay Example Voltaire's Candide shows the complete transformation of philosophical idelogoly of Pangloss that this is the best of all possible worlds. This may clearly fit to a person someone like Candide who is not aware of the outside world other than his baron's castle. But in reality, world is full of misery and corruption. The change in the mindset of a person depending on the situation is rightly presented throughout the process as he sees corruption and violence all over the world. It must be noticed that Voltaire has criticized the ideology of various characters and has tried to enlighten us about the real world. Candide is an exemplary work by Voltaire as he brings to light the behavior of various characters and criticizes the philosophies and ideologies of various religions like Roman Catholic Church, Islam and others. The idea of free will is questioned by an individual's control over his own destiny. Voltaire criticizes the idea of free will through Candide as a person is predestined to act irrespective of the fact whether he is doing good or evil. The main notion as stated by Pangloss that "there is no effect without a cause' and "we live in the best of all possible worlds and whatever happens is for the best' is strongly ridiculed as there is lot of violence and bloodshed resulting in loss of lives.

International Trade and Finance Speech Essay Example for Free

International Trade and Finance Speech Essay This speech delivered by the Speaker of the House to a group of reporters surrounding the topics of international trade, foreign exchange rates, import surplus and how they each impact different constituencies. It will also explain why the government would not be able to restrict importation of goods from China, or if wanted to impose tariffs. The Economy and international Trade The United States was once the highest exporter in all the world. Today, the United States has a negative balance of trade, because of the fact that we now import more goods than we export goods. An example of an import would be oil. The oil that we have imported impacts our businesses and our consumers by making gasoline and other oil derivatives more expensive. This makes prices increase because consumers will have to pay for goods from the fact that the cost of driving will go up. This is a major reason why the government is trying to encourage the development of alternate forms of energy such as coal or natural gas. The goods that the United States imports are not always negative. American consumers have benefited greatly from the imports such as electronics or apparel that is made mostly in Asia. The cost of production for these goods are lower in China and most other Asian countries, making it much cheaper for Americans to buy these types of goods that are being manufactured overseas. The reality of international trade is that production will naturally shift to places where goods can be manufactured more efficiently and at a lower price. What the United States has to focus on is developing new technologies and products of higher quality. With a focus based on innovation and quality instead of labor costs. International trade has an impact on the country’s GDP, the financial markets, and importantly university students. The GDP of the United States becomes stronger when we export goods more than we import goods. If negative trade balances become consistent it can lead to deficits, which will in turn cause the government to borrow more. If the government borrows more this will have an impact on the financial markets which could in time make it more costly for the United States to cover all its deficits. We need to promote our exports in order to help the GDP and make our country more impressive to investors. A healthier economy will create enough employment for those needed, especially university graduates that will be trained for the field. The quotas and tariffs regarding the government’s choices has a direct impact on our trade and the relations that we have with other countries. Reducing tariffs and participating in free trade agreements helps our export businesses. This is a reason why our government has in the past worked for establishing trade agreements with countries as South Korea, Panama, and Colombia. When a free trade agreement takes place the trading partners will erase their quotas or tariffs against products from America, this makes it easier for us to send our products to those countries. Trade is a two way engagement, where both are finding a way to benefit, with consumers benefiting as well and our exports getting higher. Foreign exchange rates are the rates of one type of currency converted to another. Such as the rate for exchange between American dollars and Japan’s Yen which is 76 Yen per dollar. Some currencies are fixed with others. The rates of floating currency is determined by the supply and demand. An example is if the European demand for the dollar increases, the supply and demand relationship between them will cause the price to increase of the dollar in relation to the euro. There are many factors that affect exchange rates that include interest rates, unemployment, political instability, inflation, and GDP. When our GDP becomes higher and our exports become level with our imports, the stronger our currency will be and we will have a better overall financial health. There are some people that believe in protectionist policies that include restricting goods that are coming in from China and several other countries, including imposing tariffs that would increase costs for purchasing of goods in the United States. This kind of policy would be populist and fueled with the good intentions of trying to protect our American jobs, its actual consequences would be an elevating trade war with an opposite effect. History proves that when governments have attempted to restrict trade and enforced protectionist measures, other countries will attempt to retaliate and adopt similar policies. An example is the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930, which broke records by increasing tariffs on 25,000 goods which had an end effect of reducing imports and exports by 50% as trade partners began with similar style tariffs. This will translate into more unemployment as companies that will export their goods will see a drastic demand drop. Restricting imports from China woul d bring drastic measures from the Chinese government, and our companies would struggle as they would be unable to export goods to that part of the world. References Colander, D. C. (2010). Macroeconomics (8th Ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin International Trade, ISSN 0020-7810, 2011, Volume 45, Issue 1, p. 79 The Journal of Economics, ISSN 0895-3309, 2007, Volume 21, Issue 3, p. 105 Foreign Policy, ISSN 0015-7228, 11/2003, Issue 139, p. 20 The American Foreign Trade, ISSN 0002-8282, 12/1928, Volume 18, Issue 4, pp. 706 713

Benefits Of Distributed Leadership Education Essay

Benefits Of Distributed Leadership Education Essay Leadership is not all down to the Head teacher, the head of department or, in the classroom the teacher. If it is, nobody is learning anything at all about leadership. The first rule about leadership is that it is shared. (Brighouse and Woods, 1999:45) Most often administrative leadership is viewed as different from any kinds of leadership in school. The roles might be different since most managerial roles are completed outside the classrooms while teachers leadership is exercised within the classroom. Nevertheless in school, teachers, administrators, Learning Support Assistants (LSAs), parents and students can all work together towards the improvement of Distributed Leadership (DL). That is why Sergiovanni states that, If leadership is a practice shared by many then it must be distributed among those who are in the right place at the right time and among those who have the ability. (2006:189-190) In this section, literature will be organised and focused round the following questions: What are the benefits of distributed leadership in a secondary school? To what extent is leadership shared among all stakeholders in Sunflower School? How far can distributed leadership facilitate learning? How effective to the schools improvement and success can distributed leadership be? What are the benefits of distributed leadership in a secondary school? A successful leader is classified as such, when s/he manages to involve others in the process of leadership. According to Sergiovanni, when principals share leadership, they get more power in return (2006:185). DL also enables those involved to develop their own leadership skills. With DL, Principals are helping their colleagues by boosting their self-confidence, and to make their own decisions (Nicholls, 2000). Recently, Mifsud found that Maltese Heads practise shared decision-making to ensure widespread ownership (2008:7). Thus all teaching-staff (Teachers and LSAs) will become more autonomous, while abiding with the School Development Plan (SDP) and curriculum. Sharing leadership with all stakeholders involves dedicating time to achieve good results (Brighouse and Woods, 1999). The pure type of collegiality (Bush, 1995:52) works its best, when the institution is formed by a small number of staff. Having a large number of teaching-staff will surely make DL difficult. Although in our schools context we have a large number of staff, DL can still work since the teaching-staff is divided into smaller groups. Likewise, Brighouse and Woods say that, The smaller the school or teaching unit, the more leadership, as well as work, can be shared (1999:45). According to Leithwood et al DL helps teachers to be satisfied with their work, increases their sense of professionalism, stimulates organisational change, increases efficiency and encourages cross-interactions between teaching-staff (1999:115). Although, Blase and Blase argue that entrusting teachers with self-autonomy and empowerment makes them feel satisfied, motivated and confident and they are likely to give their utmost in their job (1994:29); this sometimes may also lead the teaching-staff to overpower the Principal like it happens in our school. Yet, Blase and Kirby (1992) found that when teachers are empowered through autonomy, their attitudes and performance will get better. Moreover, even when leadership is shared among teaching-staff and students, this creates an attitude of respect between them, especially when they are so directly involved. Having a democratic leader helps gain attentive listening from subordinates, which in turn will also help improve relationships. When teachers working in democratic schools but had previous experiences in other schools which have authoritarian leaders were interviewed Blase and Blase (1994) concluded that teachers classroom autonomy enable them to have class control. An autocratic style called by Brighouse and Woods north pole-north pole leadership will lead teachers to work to rule and nothing more (1999:51). In contrast having a democratic style called north pole-south pole where leadership is shared among all stakeholders, will unlock enormous surges of energy and effort among professionals (Brighouse and Woods: 1999:51). They also argue, that sharing leadership will relieve Heads form some leadership stress. Thus DL, leads to sharing of responsibility which will not remain a burden on the Heads shoulders. Until recently, according to Cauchi Cuschieri (2007), leadership in Maltese Church Secondary Schools was seen as the Head teachers job. However, the style used nowadays is much more DL amongst stakeholder s. In our school this is not the case, since from its founding, it was believed that DL enables sharing ideas and responsibility which finally leads to the schools improvement. Duke et al, (1980) established, that the school is democratic one when the teaching-staff, is involved in the process of decision making. Likewise, Blase and Blase argue that increasing teacher access to decision making is essential to empowering teachers (1994:33). Also, Churchfields secondary school study shows, that teachers feel the need to participate in the schools management as it gives better results in the decision making process (Bush, 1995). Finally, when a decision is taken, it is the teaching-staffs responsibility to put it into action. So, being involved leads the staff to make a decision (Bush, 1995). Rivalland (1989 cited in Wolfendale 1992:57) presents a number of benefits that can be achieved from parental involvement in schools: They work for a better learning environment since it is for their own childs interest; Whatever is needed to be done in school, and whatever parents are able to do, they do it and they offer themselves as human resources to the school; They create the learning connection between schools and students respective homes; With their presence in school, they will become aware of what the school needs from time to time. Although, Wolfendale (1992) argues, that having parents involved in the study and formulation of schools behaviour and discipline policy will give a good result; this may not be applicable in our school since it seems that the Parents and Teachers Association (PTA) tackles only social issues and personal concerns of parents. However, this will be investigated later on in this study. King states that students leadership is mostly exercised in the prefectorial system (1973:141). However, this does not seem to be the only solution for our school, since leadership is also exercised through the students council. It is true that the ultimate responsibility of decision-making in schools is in the hands of the Principal. Nonetheless, as Frost claims Schools can also be enriched by students contributions to decision-making and curriculum development (2008:356). Moreover, when students are consulted in certain matters such as finance they are taught some of the hard lessons of democracy (Colgate, 1976:123). Prefects and councillors are students particularly chosen to help in school control and decision making. If their appointment is successful they may also serve as role models for other students (King, 1973). Contrary to all the benefits of involving all stakeholders, one has to say that collegiality is an intense activity since it entails work after school hours. Likewise, Smylie and Denny (1990) argue that the involvement of the teaching-staff in leadership may be time consuming and may have an effect on the students needs. The time for training and the funding allocated for these functions are not enough, argues White (1992). These problems make DL more difficult to succeed. However since all teaching-staff in our school have free periods during the day, this may not be a problem. Adding to this, having a large number of participants might create problems in communication, even when having a wide range of different views from all participants (Bush, 1995). To what extent is leadership shared among all stakeholders in Sunflower School? Leadership is not a one man job, because to be successful this must be shared. Moyo writes that: The concept of distributed leadership is the idea of sharing leadership amongst all stakeholders. These stakeholders, as stated earlier include head teachers, middle leaders, teachers, parents and students. (2010:25) It is not leadership if a person orders, requires, seduces, or threatens anothers compliance, (Sergiovanni, 2006:192). So true leadership is when it is shared among all those having the ability to be involved in it. Similarly, Brighouse and Woods emphasise that: One person may be key but leadership is shared among pupils, teachers and other staff and members of the community (1999:48). Likewise, Leithwood et al (1999) refers to DL as a key element of many SDPs. Until recently the Head teacher in Maltese schools was seen as the schools ultimate authority (Mifsud, 2008). Rather than having an autocratic school, having a democratic one entails having a DL (Bush, 1995). With collaboration, and exchange of ideas, problems can be solved collegially, while individual qualities are developed further (Leithwood et al, 1999). This is what Bush calls collegiality (1995:52), and claims that there are two different types of collegiality, one is the restricted, meaning that a number from the staff are chosen to participate in the process of decision making, while the other called pure is the process which involves everyone equally (Bush, 1995:52). Teachers, LSAs, parents and students who are enormously committed to children and school life (Brighouse and Woods, 1999:49) are perfect for participating in DL, because they are more approachable, more trusted, and their main goal is school improvement. In one of the interviews carried out in Blase and Blases (1994) study, a teacher describes best what a shared governance principals attitude should be like, that is, to guide not to dictate. Teachers interviewed could make comparisons of past and present principals. Although its ideal to involve everyone in the process of decision making, in the context of our school, there should be a person that leads both the discussion, and assumes responsibility for taking the final decisions, which should be the Principal or a delegate. About this, Blase and Blase state that principals are compelled to assume full responsibility over all school matters (1994:78). Dunford et al also maintain that whilst the Head will remain the leader, others will need to add a leadership role to their management responsibilities (2000:5). Weick (1976, cited in Blase and Blase 1994:135) claims that now schools have developed into organisations, in which administrators and teachers work separately and independently. This does not appear to be our schools situation, as the stakeholders all seemed to be involved in teamwork. In contrast, Blase and Blase (1994) research presents principals under study as being open to others opinions, collegiality and DL. When this issue of DL was introduced, most Senior Management Team (SMT) members were being involved. Arguing this Dunford et al (2000) say that particularly having more SMT members in a secondary school, leads to the shared responsibility and the establishment of different roles. Leithwood et al (1999:121) in their study found that teachers were most likely involved in school planning and school structure and organisation while the principals leadership is more focused to management issues. In our school this is not the case as in school planning the Principal is the Chairperson. Normally, people think that teacher leadership is exercised only within the classroom. However, in democratic schools like ours, teachers are involved in all aspects of the school, even when taking decisions. Blase and Blase also state that, Successful shared governance principals show trust in teachers capacity for responsible involvement in both school-level and classroom-level decision making. (1994:27) Similarly Leithwood et al argued that there are two forms of teacher leadership; one is the formal style for leadership of class control, or an informal one: By sharing their expertise, volunteering for new projects and bringing new ideas to the school helping their colleagues to carry out their classroom duties, and by assisting in the improvement of classroom practice, (1999:117). Brighouse and Woods (1999) concluded that because teachers are leaders in classes they dont like to be followers, and so expect to participate more in school leadership. Moreover, they also say that: Successful Headsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ are men and women with ideals and the ability to share those ideals with those whom they lead. (1999:54). Therefore, through the sharing and openness of ideas, leadership is shared and decisions taken will hold much more. However, in the context of our school, if leadership is to be shared and if teachers are to work in different groups, they are to be monitored either by the Principal or assistant principal. Moreover Leithwood et al, (2000) claim that the number of people involved in DL varies according to different tasks. Most effective distribution of leadership functions would vary the numbers of people providing leadership in response to the complexity of the tasks to be performed-more in the case of complex tasks and fewer in response to simple tasks (2007:58). Research shows that in Malta, Practically all schools have teachers involved in one team or another (LIE, 2009:176). The benefits of DL indicate that Maltese schools are trying to work hard on it. Since 1980, the Education Act in England ensured parental representation on school governing bodies (Wolfendale, 1992:62). Likewise, the Maltese Education Act that was reformed in 2006 states that the Maltese Directorate for Educational Services, Should promote, encourage and monitor the democratic governance of schools through School Councils with the active participation of parents, teachers and students. (GOM, 2006:7) Thus the PTA and Students Council were introduced in Maltese Schools so that they may participate actively in school leadership and decision making. As Wolfendale (1992) said, the aim for parents participation is to represent other parents, to discuss common interest issues and to inform other parents of decisions taken through written circulars or school meetings. It is also described as a forum for teachers and parents to meet and engage in social and perhaps fundraising activities (Wolfendale, 1992:74). Furthermore, research in Malta confirms that parents are indeed involved in policy decision making and practice (LIE, 2009). Parents are always keen to participate in school leadership for the benefits of their own children and for the schools improvement (Wolfendale, 1992). In our school, this may not be the situation, since there are those who are passive and do not participate in any activities or meetings even if it regards their own childs interests. In most of the Maltese schools or colleges, only a small percentage of parents are involved through the PTA committee, while others get involved only through activities organized by the school or the PTA. Some parents are called upon by the schools to offer their expertise where necessary (LIE, 2009:175). However, Wolfendale (1992) notes, that sometimes teachers do not feel the benefit of parental involvement in school. Harding and Pike (1988 cited in Wolfendale, 1992:59) suggest ways in which parents can be directly involved in the school. This can be done through: Personal contact with the school and staff; Written communication; PTA or other parental groups within the school; Their involvement in school matters and learning. In contrast, in primary schools the rate of parental involvement in the PTA is higher than in the secondary. This most probably happens because secondary schools are much larger in number and more teachers are involved, so the rapport between parents and teachers may not be that strong. These issues have been called by Wolfendale as difficulties to set up and maintain teacher-parent initiatives in secondary schools (1992:58). The development of the School Development Plan was one of the main activities where DL was exercised in Maltese schools with the intention of including all stakeholders in planning and discussion. As the aim was for the schools improvement and improved learning for all students, it was noticed that students were not included in any of the discussion. This issue was later tackled firstly by a students school council (LIE, 2009) and then by an Ekoskola committee, which takes care of the environment (Bezzina, 2007). Since, students are the final achievers of the educational institution, they should have space and opportunities to share their views and talk about their needs. Bell and Harrison (1998) state that it is of mutual importance for the school to work in collaboration with students and encourage them in teamwork. Likewise, Brighouse and Woods (1999) stress the importance of involving children in leadership roles within the school, to make them more responsible and prepare them for the world of work. However, there are two types of student leaders and these must be clearly distinguished. There are those called bullies, who use their power to intimidate others and as a result push away all other students. The other group is called unofficial leaders (Brighouse and Woods, 1999:48), who somehow always attract others. Moreover, they may be trusted and given a number of leadership duties to carry out as they are seen by teachers as capable and responsible pupils. To distinguish between these kinds of leaders, the school can organise a socio-gram test at the beginning or at the end of the scholastic year. How far can distributed leadership facilitate learning? Leithwood et al (1999) argue that there is a challenge between leadership practice, and the research that points out ways in which leadership affects students and their learning. In contrast, Spillane claims that: What matters for instructional improvement and student achievement is not that leadership is distributed, but how it is distributed (2005:149). However, Leithwood et al (2006b) maintain that after classroom teaching, leadership is next to influence students learning. Lately, Leithwood and Massey emphasised that Leadership is a major cause for the improvements in student achievement. (2010:79) Principals and other SMT members are encouraged to work hard towards creating a better environment for better learning. This means that they are to ensure that the school atmosphere is good both for teachers to work in and for students to learn. This does not refer only to the physical environment, but also to the distribution of leadership and teachers autonomy. Principals acceptance of trust and DL within their school means that they let the teaching-staff choose their ways and means of teaching that is best applicable for the students under their responsibility (Blase and Blase, 1994). This also can be done through encouraging teamwork between teachers and LSAs. Similarly, Bezzina claims that Only by involving all stakeholders and respecting differences can we give birth to new ideas (2006:86) and thus create a better atmosphere for better learning. Moreover, Brighouse and Woods highlight that DL and collaboration among all staff will result in: raising the achievement of pupils (1999:83). Christopher Bezzina conducted a case study in one of the Maltese Church schools, where the academic achievement was not so high. The schools Head, having had experiences in different schools introduced the issue of DL for better learning. Teaching-staff, parents and students were encouraged to participate in the schools matters and decision making programmes. The result was successful concluding that quality improvement initiatives placed a great emphasis on the leadership of the organisation (Bezzina 2008:23). Thus, one can conclude that having DL in a school has a great impact on learning. According to Moyo, DL has an effect on students learning through teachers, who are the closest leaders in contact with students and their learning; But in order to achieve this, teachers need to be involved and motivated by the leadership, (2010:23). Teachers having a personal view of DL, help children to learn more. This is done by involving them in leadership practice inside and outside the classroom. Brighouse and Woods (1999) note that even the type of teacher-student relationship has an influence on students learning. Moreover, having autocratic leadership style in class does not help in creating a learning atmosphere for students. The teacher with good student relationship encourages pupils to never give up, and aim high in life for the future. As stated by Blase and Blase (1994), teachers autonomy is when they are free to decide their own ways and means, to carry out their work. In Malta, teachers autonomy is mostly linked with the classroom; where they are free to design their lesson plans, with their own resources, while also having autonomy to students control, which Blase and Blase (1994:73) call it disciplinary matters. This kind of DL will also influence students learning. Besides this type of autonomy in the classroom, new methods and techniques should be tried and encouraged. This so called innovation facilitates learning for all students, as education becomes not just one size fits all, but adapted especially to the pupils needs (Blase and Blase 1994:75) through the organisation of differentiated learning. In school, this entails teamwork, reinforces collegiality and sharing of the resources within. For teachers to improve students learning, they must first share their ideals with others and then work together towards that ideal. It is the job of the management to bring those ideals together into common set of objectives, (Brighouse and Woods, 1999:54). Parents are considered as the first educators, great contributors of all aspects of learning, and always interested in helping their children to learn better. Wolfendale (1992:60) argues that, parents as educators, can make a significant contribution to childrens acquisition of reading and literacy skills. Moreover, Leithwood et al argue that: No matter what the student population, involving parents primarily in the teaching of their own children is most likely to contribute to childrens learning (2006a:102). The study by HMI (Her Majestys Inspectors) showed that Parents involvement in schools, lead to students success (1991, cited in Wolfendale, 1992:56). Its interesting to study ways in which parents can help both teachers and students in relation to learning. However, one must also take note of the relationship that exists between parents and teachers and not cause any job meddling. Usually, we only think of academic results when it comes to students learning. However, research shows that through their participation in leadership, students gain more knowledge and acquire new skills. These skills are needed for their future in society. Frost claims that students participation in leadership also helps them acquire other non-academic achievements; greater self-esteem, heightened self-confidence, interpersonal and political skills, and self-efficacy when students have opportunities to exercise responsibility (2008:356). When given certain leadership roles, students set their own targets for learning through that experience (Brighouse and Woods, 1999), which might also be of help to other students. Brighouse and Woods (1999) argue that a teacher can give responsibility to students to help those in need in a certain matter. Through each others support, those that have less academic abilities will achieve and learn more. Research shows that pupils have so much to say about their learning, and as such they should be consulted for the benefit of their learning, and the methodology used by teachers in class (Morgan, 2011). How effective to the schools improvement and success can distributed leadership be? Fink sees schools as living systems where: Leadership is distributed across the various cells that affect a school such as students, teachers, parents, unions, social services, County Hall, and local communities. (2010:44) Bezzinas study carried out in a Maltese Church School revealed, that when teachers were involved in DL the majority of staff felt responsible for determining the way forward (2008:24). He then concluded that school improvement and success can be achieved, with hard work, sacrifice and commitment expressed by the Head teacher, the senior leadership team, pupils, parents and teachers, (Bezzina, 2008:26). LIE maintains that when a policys decision making process involves all stakeholders in a school including, SMT, teachers, students and parents; Then the values which are held dear by the school will be on the road to success because they would have been owned by all (2009:176) Brighouse and Woods (1999:45) confirm that research done in the past and again lately by OFSTED shows that, leadership in schools is the key factor in improvement and success. They also argue that, A key ingredient to school success is the extent to which the values of school life are shared among all the members of the community, (Brighouse and Woods, 1999:55) According to Telford (1995) collaboration between all stakeholders within a school brings about school improvement. She argues that the following points which lead to school improvement affect both the individuals within the school and the institution itself; Development of the educational potential of students, professional development of teachers, good organizational health, institutionalization of vision (Telford, 1995, cited in Bell and Harrison 1998:14). It is interesting to note that it is much easier for principals to control goals rather than humans. To gain control for the accomplishment of a goal, leadership must be shared (Sergiovanni, 2006). Little (1981, cited in Sergiovanni, 2006:186) found that when principals work through collegiality with teachers, the school will improve. It is of importance to equalize the principal and teachers opinions in a discussion, since no one should be preferred to the others as everyone is sharing from his/her own knowledge, for the schools best interest (Blase and Blase, 1994). Similarly, Nicholls (2000) argue that leadership is best carried out when a number of people having the same values and aims challenge each other for getting better results. In other words, one can say that school leadership is best fulfilled when all those involved in the institution, share their thoughts without being considered as superior to one another. Thus, including group activity liberates leadership and provid es the framework we need for widespread involvement in improving schools (Sergiovanni, 2006:186). In successful schools, when a debate crops up on school improvement, the staff should work on: Involving pupils, parents and governors (Brighouse and Woods, 1999:83). Likewise, Davies and Davies (2010) also claim that it is crucial to involve others in school leadership as it leads to school improvement and success. Moreover, they say that: Engaging all the staff in discussions about where the school is, where it needs to go and hence the skills and knowledge we need to learn to achieve progress is a uniting factor. (Davies and Davies, 2010:15) Shared leadership might bring about changes which are required for school improvement to take place. The best change is usually one generated from something or someone within the school because it Recharges energy in participants and embraces the greatest likelihood of improvement in teaching and learning styles, simply because it is so localised, (Brighouse and Woods, 1999:60). Changes for school improvement are gained faster, when teachers are involved in the process of decision making (Bush, 1995). Furthermore, Brighouse and Woods, (1999) argue that when change for school improvement is required, time has to be allocated in the schools diary, since the staff needs time to work on the implementation process. In their study Leithwood et al concluded that teachers consider their participation in leadership, as a step for the school to be more effective and innovative (1999:121). Moreover, when teachers are involved in the decision making they are less likely to have adverse reactions to principals expectations. According to Dunford et al (2000) when the decision making process involves those who are closest to its impact it gives a positive attitude towards school improvement. In addition, they say that if secondary schools want to be effective, leadership must be shared at least among senior staff. Furthermore, Sergiovanni (2006) emphasises that in schools where power is shared among principals, teachers, parents and others, work is done autonomously towards schools aims for school improvement. Likewise, Nicholls (2000) claims, that a shared vision is indispensable for school improvement. Trusting teachers through empowerment may lead principals to achieve their desired goals without imposing them. Building trust is critical to empowering teachers, (Blase and Blase, 1994:29). They also claim that this shows that the principal demonstrated great faith in them and valued them as experts and professionals, (Blase and Blase, 1994:77). Teachers involved in different leadership roles are expected to work for the improvement of the decision-making process (Leithwood et al, 1999). This collegial process of involving others in the decision making process is exercised through discussion and shared power in the institution. In a collegial, collaborative environment, principals consistently concentrate on enabling others to examine and redesign schools for improved learning, and teachers learn to share power and work as a team. (Blase and Blase, 1994:33) Leithwood et al (2007) concluded that when DL is implemented and when opportunities are offered, staff will be much more motivated to work towards school improvement. From their research Leithwood et al established that: Informal leaders had more involvement with creating high-performance expectations and motivating others than formal school leaders, while formal leaders had more to do with identifying and articulating a vision. (2007:57) With informal leaders we can include both parents and pupils. When students are at home most of them speak about their school experience with their siblings and through this parents get to know their thoughts and feelings. Hence, parents might be another link between schools and children. Parental involvement in schools may bring about changes which will finally lead to school improvement. Similarly, Wolfendale argues that, parental opinion can be mobilized to bring about significant changes (1992:63). Conclusion Schools success lies in the skills and attitudes of the professional staff, not merely within the leadership capabilities of the principal. (Blase and Blase, 1994:28) Thus DL is needed for growth and development because the Principal sometimes is in need of other staff members to solve certain problems. According to Bezzina, DL calls for an extension of that power vertically downwards to involve all members of staff, (2000:305). Moreover, the final result of school success is a job that belon

Westward Expansion Essay -- essays research papers

Book Review – Westward Expansion 1807 - 1880 THESIS: After the War of 1812 much of America's attention turned to exploration and settlement of its territory to the West, which had been greatly enlarged by the Louisiana Purchase. SUMMARY: Families of pioneers swept westward and founded new communities throughout what is now the Midwest, and between 1816 and 1821, six new states were admitted to the Union. The land boom was fed by encouragement from the federal government and the actions of land speculators, who bought up large tracts of land in order to sell it in parcels to farmers at exorbitant prices. These farmers did not mind high prices and high interest on loans due to the growing success of American agricultural products. Most western farmers became cash croppers who sometimes neglected subsistence farming in order to focus on marketable commodities. Soon the farmers' dependence on distant markets caught up with them, however, as the state bank system that had sprung up to support speculation collapsed, dragging agricultural prices and land values down with it. Many western settlers suffered greatly during the Panic of 1819, but most survived and continued the conquest of the West. A major aspect of the conquest of the West was the removal of the Indians who dwelled there. Under the leadership of President Andrew Jackson, the Indians who remained East of the Mississippi were cruelly and violently driven from their homes and concentrated in reservations in what is ...

Essay --

Mara Salvatrucha Mara Salvatrucha, otherwise known as â€Å"MS-13,† is quite possibly one of the most well known and most notorious street gangs in the world. Beginning in the poor immigrant streets of Los Angeles in the 1980’s, the gang has spread like wild fire across not only the United States, but across the world, from Alaska to Spain (Tkach & Parker, 2006). Originating in Los Angeles, California, MS-13 was founded by refugees from El Salvador. â€Å"Mara† is a Central American term for gang; â€Å"salva† refers to El Salvador, â€Å"trucha,† meaning â€Å"trout† in English, for something that is clever, or sharp. MS-13 is also known as the â€Å"Salvadoran Army Ants.† After MS-13 spread from their birthplace in Los Angeles across countries, their activities helped make the infamous Northern Triangle: Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, as the most violent place in the world that is not at war (Dudley, 2013). Mara Salvatrucha has been named one of the world’s most dangerous gangs due to their origins, growing population of the gang, the brutality of their crimes, the signs and famous tattoos Mara Salvatrucha is known for, the prison life hiding the leaders, and the evolution into organized crime. Starting with civil wars of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua, refugees traveled northbound to Los Angeles. In 2012, the United States Treasury Department named MS-13 as a transnational criminal organization. The Treasury Department gave insight on details about how truly powerful MS-13 is, including that the gang is involved with â€Å"drug trafficking, kidnapping, human smuggling, sex trafficking, murder, assassinations, racketeering, blackmail, extortion, and immigration offenses† (Dudley, 2013). Mara Salvatrucha has been placed with the Zetas from Mexico, ... ... from Mexico, Italy’s Camorra, and the Japanese Yakuza, confirming that Mara Salvatrucha is one of the most dangerous gangs. When a member is sentenced to prison, it is beneficial for the member because they learn criminal and gang knowledge by the veterans of MS-13 that reside in prison. Learning the graffiti, the hand signals and stacking, the tattoos and their meanings, obtaining information from different cliques can all be obtained due to members of MS-13 going to prison. While America sits and continuously deports MS-13 gang members away from the States, they are spreading the terror to other countries. Now, in El Salvador, this country is seeing more violence now due to the gang violence than they did when they were going through civil war. Ironically, the civil war is what drove refugees up to Los Angeles and what became the birth place of Mara Salvatrucha.

Analysis Of Crito :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Analysis of Crito   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The question is raised within the dialogue between Socrates and Crito concerning civil disobedience. Crito has the desire, the means, and many compelling reasons with which he tries to convince the condemned to acquiesce in the plan to avoid his imminent death. Though Crito's temptation is imposing, it is in accord with reason and fidelity that Socrates chooses to fulfill his obligation to the state, even to death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before addressing Crito's claims which exhort Socrates to leave the state and avoid immanent death, the condemned lays a solid foundation upon which he asserts his obligation to abide by the laws. The foundation is composed of public opinion, doing wrong, and fulfillment of one's obligations. Addressing public opinion, Socrates boldly asserts that it is more important to follow the advice of the wise and live well than to abide by the indiscriminate and capricious public opinion and live poorly. Even when it is the public who may put one to death, their favor need not be sought, for it is better to live well than to submit to their opinion and live poorly. Next, wrongful doing is dispatched of. They both consent to the idea that, under no circumstances, may one do a wrong, even in retaliation, nor may one do an injury; doing the latter is the same as wrong doing. The last foundation to be questioned is the fulfillment of one's obligations. Both of the philosophers affirm that, provided that the conditions one consents to are legitimate, one is compelled to fulfill those covenants. These each are founded upon right reasoning and do provide a justifiable foundation to discredit any design of dissent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At line fifty, Socrates executes these foundations to destroy and make untenable the petition that he may rightfully dissent: Then consider the logical consequence. If we leave this place without first persuading the state to let us go, are we or are we not doing an injury, and doing it in a quarter where it is least justifiable? Are we or are we not abiding by our just agreements?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To criticize or reproach Socrates' decision to accept his punishment is unjustifiable in most of the arguments. Analysis Of Crito :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays Analysis of Crito   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The question is raised within the dialogue between Socrates and Crito concerning civil disobedience. Crito has the desire, the means, and many compelling reasons with which he tries to convince the condemned to acquiesce in the plan to avoid his imminent death. Though Crito's temptation is imposing, it is in accord with reason and fidelity that Socrates chooses to fulfill his obligation to the state, even to death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before addressing Crito's claims which exhort Socrates to leave the state and avoid immanent death, the condemned lays a solid foundation upon which he asserts his obligation to abide by the laws. The foundation is composed of public opinion, doing wrong, and fulfillment of one's obligations. Addressing public opinion, Socrates boldly asserts that it is more important to follow the advice of the wise and live well than to abide by the indiscriminate and capricious public opinion and live poorly. Even when it is the public who may put one to death, their favor need not be sought, for it is better to live well than to submit to their opinion and live poorly. Next, wrongful doing is dispatched of. They both consent to the idea that, under no circumstances, may one do a wrong, even in retaliation, nor may one do an injury; doing the latter is the same as wrong doing. The last foundation to be questioned is the fulfillment of one's obligations. Both of the philosophers affirm that, provided that the conditions one consents to are legitimate, one is compelled to fulfill those covenants. These each are founded upon right reasoning and do provide a justifiable foundation to discredit any design of dissent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At line fifty, Socrates executes these foundations to destroy and make untenable the petition that he may rightfully dissent: Then consider the logical consequence. If we leave this place without first persuading the state to let us go, are we or are we not doing an injury, and doing it in a quarter where it is least justifiable? Are we or are we not abiding by our just agreements?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To criticize or reproach Socrates' decision to accept his punishment is unjustifiable in most of the arguments.

Happiness and Veronica S Life

Compare and contrast the female characters in ‘Veronica’ and ‘The Necklace’ Both ‘Veronica’ and The Necklace’ concentrate on the female main character, one of the similarities. However the characters are more different than similar. In ‘The Necklace’ there is Mathilde who desires for wealth and popularity. She is seen as desperate. The Necklace was written in 1884 by Guy de Maupassant a French writer. In ‘Veronica’ the main female character is Veronica; a native villager. Veronica is seen as a strong, happy character despite her misgivings in life.Veronica was written in 1995 by Adelwale maja-pearce. Even with their differences the characters have similarities even though their backgrounds are so different. In Veronica the writer is trying to get sympathy from the reader by talking about her background ‘I would lie awake listening to her screams’. This makes the reader feel sorry for Veronica as Adel wale maja-pearce describes Veronica as poor girl with little fortune. However this is quite the opposite with Mahtilde as she is always unsatisfied. The writer is manipulating you to make you believe her character is ungrateful and spoilt.This makes the reader dislike Mahtilde, especially compared to Veronica, as her life is reasonably good. The writer shows Mahtilde’s discontent from the first paragraph, this shows the importance of her discontent. After all it was Mahtilde’s discontent which leads to the misfortune of paying back the debt. The writer uses abstract nouns ‘regret’, ‘despair’, ‘envied’ to show Mahtilde’s superficial view on life. This makes the reader realise what a shallow character Mahtilde is. Also it gives hints of what might happen next in the story. Mathilde is unhappy of with her life and social status. I haven’t got anything to wear’ ‘I haven’t got a single piece of jewelle ry’ this shows she has a desire for more yet not realising her life isn’t as poor as she makes it out to be. The writer never seems to focus on the relationship between Mathilde and Monsieur Loisel but how Mathilde depends on her husband. However her husband still stays with her even when she needs to pay back the necklace. Similarly, Okeke is the only constant character coming back to Veronica. Okeke holds an important role the story; his life contrast is a contrast to Veronica’s life.While Okeke is in the city, Veronica stays in the village. While Okeke is educated, Veronica is not (because she had to look after brothers and sisters). Veronica and Okeke’s relationship shows a friendship and love. On the other hand Mathilde and Monsieur Loisel definitely do not have a strong relationship despite their marriage. Monsieur Loisel isn’t presented as an important character like Okeke is. Perhaps this is because Mathilde character is self-centred theref ore her one and only goal is to be envied. Adewale Maja-pearce presents Veronica as a content woman. ‘God blessed us with a son.Is that not enough? ’ Not only does she realise what she has got but she believes in God. Although the village is in ‘acute poverty’ Veronica never complains and never says she regrets things. She could have moved to the city but she didn’t. She knew her place was in the village even if that would lead her to very little. Now she has a husband and a child. Veronica is happy. But Mathilde is discontent. ‘What earthly use is that to me’ although she would like go Mathilde says she has nothing to wear. She wants to impress the people who are higher up than her. Therefore she is demanding.It makes us wonder if she will ever be happy. Mathilde is always trying to climb the social ladder and she admires (and envies) those who are above her like Madame Forestier. ‘She never called now, for she was always so unhap py afterwards’ Mathilde is ashamed of her social standing. The writer makes us think that Mathilde is power-driven by the wealth she doesn’t have. As a reader we don’t think Mathilde is a partially good character. Compared to Veronica she has a lot more. Mathilde is not that poor – she used to have a servant. However Veronica is happier and accepting of her lot.Section 3 Both Veronica and Mathilde have to deal with destruction in their life. At the party, for the first time Mathilde is ecstatic. It took her a long time to get to this state of happiness. This one night she feels like she fits in. ‘she was the prettiest woman there, elegant, graceful, radiant and wonderfully happy’. She looks the part of a glamorous woman. She looks like she belongs with the wealthy world with her necklace and her expensive dress. It’s a contrast to the rest of the story as finally she is almost living her dream. She even forgets her old life.Now she is shown into a new world. But then the writer puts a twist on the story; Mathilde lost the necklace. However much suffering they had when paying off the debts Mathilde still wouldn’t regret that night. Greed and deception are what sealed her fate. When Mathilde loses the necklace we start to feel sorry for her. We feel sorry because after all this happiness she has a great debt to pay off. However Veronica situation is the opposite as she couldn’t have controlled the war going on. Mathilde self-inflicted the debt as she chose to borrow the necklace.Veronica had to stay in the village as she doesn’t belong in the city. Veronica doesn’t have any education meaning she can’t get a job and get a better life. Veronica is still content with her life even with all the suffering. Mathilde looked everywhere for the necklace and when she couldn’t find it she saw only one option to replace it. Section 4 Both Veronica and Mathilde are surprised to see thei r old friends. Veronica is content at the end as she is happy to see Okeke. For her seeing Okeke is her dying wish. Seeing Okeke means she can die peacefully. Veronica doesn’t want to live; she has nothing to live for.Both her husband and child has died meaning now she is very lonely. Adewale Maja-pearce has used speech to explain veronica’s feelings. This way we can feel Veronica’s point of view – Veronica is ready to die. Veronica now accepts her fate to die. Unlike Veronica’s hardships, which ended in content because she saw Okeke for the last time, Mathilde realises the unnecessary poverty she has been living in. In the ‘Necklace’ To close, both stories are dominated by female characters, their sufferings, 1995 http://www. studymode. com/essays/Discuss-How-Veronica-Is-Portrayed-And-843029. html

Police Roles and Functions

Police Department Roles and Function CJA/214 Police Department Roles and Function In this paper the principal roles and functions of police organizations and their roles as it applies to the law will be identified. Secondly, the description of various types of police agencies at the local, state, federal level, and the roles and functions of each will be discussed. In addition, the role and function of patrol will be explained. The principal roles and function of police organizationsThe principal role of police organizations can be narrowed down to different services that they provide. Protecting and serving the local community and their civil rights, traffic control, to uphold and enforce the law, and to encourage respecting the law. As we identify the function of the police organization we can say that each organization function helps to prevent crime and keep communities safe. The municipal police deals with serious crimes in big and small cities and asked to provide a wide variet y of emergency services.Description of various types of police agencies at the Local, State and Federal Levels As previously discussed, there are three levels of law enforcement agencies being covered, Local, State and Federal. The Local level is made of three organization Municipal Police, County Police, County Sheriff, County Coroner/Medical Examiner and some states still use Constables today. Let’s briefly review each one. Municipal police play a more complex role than any other law enforcement agency due to serving in our cities. Big and small cities represent the most complex environments when it comes to diversity.With that being said, city police carry the heaviest responsibility for dealing with serious crime, which is not concentrated evenly. They are also responsible for difficult order maintenance problems as well as asked and expected to provide a wide range of emergency services (Walker & Katz 2011). A County Police officer is essentially a municipal police offic er that operates on a county-wide basis but do not have non-law enforcement roles of the county sheriff. There focus is on patrolling and criminal investigations.On the other hand, County Sheriff has a unique role as they serve all three components to the criminal justice system: law enforcement, courts and corrections (Walker & Katz 2011). Under these components they patrol, investigate crimes, process and serve subpoenas, provide security in courtrooms and last but not lease maintain county jails. The County Coroner also called the Medical Examiner falls under the law enforcement because they investigate death scenes, conduct autopsies and determine cause of violent and unexpected deaths (Walker & Katz2011).Constables were still used, are usually found in a County court system where they are responsible for serving warrants and subpoenas, transporting prisoners, and providing security for district judges. They also work with county commissioners to post delinquent tax notices and assist attorneys in serving divorce papers (Walker & Katz 2011). State police and Highway patrol fall under the State Level. They both provide a variety of law enforcement services. In terms of patrol, state police have concurrent or shared responsibility with local police agencies.In about half of the states, the state police or highway patrol agency has the primary responsibility for enforcing traffic laws on the main highways (Walker & Katz2011). State police manage traffic and emergency incidents and minimize exposure of the public to unsafe conditions resulting from emergency incidents and highway impediments. Furthermore state police prevent loss of life, injuries, property damage, and protect public and state assets (CHP 2012). The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is one of several law enforcement organizations under the federal umbrella.The DEA is to enforce the controlled substances laws and regulations of the United States and bring to the criminal and civil justice s ystem of the United States (DEA 2012), and primarily dedicated to reducing the supply of illegal drugs to residents in the United States (Walker & Katz 2011). One of the missions and responsibilities of the DEA is the management of national drug intelligence program that aids with federal, state, local, and foreign officials to collect various intelligence drug information (DEA 2012). The role and function of patrol With law enforcement officer the role and function of patrol can take on many descriptions.At times while on patrol an officer can be called upon to be a service provider, a crime fighter or a social worker. Secondly, traffic flow and collision reduction can be one of the many functions that allow an officer to take up different roles while on duty (Heath & Karen, 2012). Conclusion In conclusion local, state and federal law enforcement agencies are the key to protecting our country. From the municipal police officer who is responding to a 911 call or a federal agent maki ng a major illegal drug bust, each duty is very different but essential to enforcing our laws.Without law enforcement agencies in the United States and throughout the world, there’d be no one to â€Å"protect and serve† leading to total chaos. Reference Walker, S. , & Katz, C. M. (2011). The Police in America. An introduction (7th ed. ). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix Collection database. CHP (2012) The California Highway Patrol, Retrieved from http://www. chp. ca. gov/html/mission. html Drug Enforcement Administration (2012) About Us, Our Mission Retrieved from http://www. justice. gov/dea/ HG Global Legal Resources (1999-2012) Control Substances Law Retrieved from http://www. hg. org/control. html

Fiscal Decentralization and Economic Growth in Pakistan

FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN PAKITAN A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Institute of Management Sciences, Peshawar In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of MBA (Finance) (2009-2011) Institute of Management Sciences, Peshawar Chapter 1: Introduction According to James Edwin Kee, Fiscal decentralization is the devolution of certain administrative and fiscal powers and functions to the sub-national governments.It also means the shifting of responsibility to the low-level governments with concomitant accountability. The extent of Fiscal devolution can be measured in terms of the powers of low-level governments to raise revenue or to incur expenditures. Fiscal devolution in the public sector has received great attention during the last two decades for many reasons. The implications of financial autonomy on the performance of sub level government and economic growth has been studied widely both for the developing and the developed world.In transition countries, with the disintegration of centralized system, fiscal federalism emerged; and in many developing countries, like India, Brazil and Argentina, financial decentralization was debated regarding its effects on economic stabilization. Some studies have, however, suggested that the relationship between the two has not been conclusive. [Financial devolution] is reckoned as a key policy tool that ensures economic efficiency and good governance through financial autonomy of the [federating units].It leads to the integration of provinces and enhances their participatory role in the economic development of a country. It relieves the central government from paying attention to the details of financial matters, thereby enabling it to undertake the tasks at national level in a more effective and efficient manner. Also, if the central government for some reasons becomes inefficient, then devolution can be a possible solution. It accelerates growth and empowers the low-level governments through financial autonomy and administrative empowerment.The devolution makes the federating units more responsible as it brings the government closer to the people. Decentralization policy has a positive effect on economic growth as it helps implement social policies in a better manner. In decentralized set ups, the lower tiers of governments know more about the necessities and developmental needs of the people, which leads to economic efficiency in service delivery, thereby accelerating the growth rate at national and regional levels. This is also called the â€Å"Oats Decentralization Theorem†.It says that if the people in one municipality are not provided with adequate public services, they may opt for shifting to other municipalities having more facilities. Financial autonomy reduces the wasteful utilization of resources by the central government. According to Bird and Smart (2002), for effective service delivery it is important that the recipient of funds has clear man date, sufficient resources and powers to make decisions. Through decentralization, responsibilities as well as resources are devolved to the lower level governments (Rondinelli,1981).In this way , the federating units are empowered which enable them to use the resources to good effect , raise living standard of the people and distribute the work load (Gordin, 2004). In Pakistan’s case, the significance of Fiscal devolution cannot be overemphasized. Pakistan is a federation having a centralized taxation system. The major chunk of revenue is collected by the central government, which is then distributed among the provinces to remove financial disparities.Article 160 of the constitution empowers the president that he shall constitute National Finance Commission after every five years for the distribution of funds, taxes and other monetary assets among the federating units. The decision of the commission is called National Finance Commission Award. The commission is comprised of the finance ministers of the federation and the provinces and such other persons as may be appointed by the president in consultation with the governors of the respective provinces. So far, seven NFC Awards have been announced, the latest being the 7th NFC Award of 2010.Except for the 1974 Award, there has been a growing tendency in the transfer of revenue from the centre to the provinces. The 4th NFC Award was a significant move forward towards fiscal decentralization as it enhanced the share of the provinces by 18% and accepted their right over hydel profit, developmental surcharge and excise duty on crude oil. The 7th NFC Award accepted the demands of Baluchistan, KPK, Sindh by devising a formula, wherein poverty, inverse population density and under development have also been given due weightage.Moreover, the provincial share has been enhanced from the previous 47. 5% to 56%. The provinces were also given the powers to collect Sales Tax on their own. Following this decision, the Sindh Province has already undertaken this task and claims to have collected 50% more Sales Tax in the first five months of the financial year compared to the corresponding period last year [Dawn, Dec 10, 2011]. The 8th Financial Award is scheduled to be held on 16th Dec, 2011.Apart from the resource distribution Through NFC Award, Article 161 of the Constitution provides for transfer of Royalty on natural resources to the respective provinces in the shape of surcharge on gas and crude oil. This will lead to greater transfer of funds from the centre to the provinces. With the 18th Constitutional amendment, the concurrent list has been abolished, and with it entry No. 49 in the 4th Schedule to the Federal Legislative list has also been amended. As a result, the GST Services in Federal Excise mode have been assigned to the provinces.Despite the presence of this constitutional mechanism for resource distribution, the smooth allocation of funds was interrupted due to deadlocks among th e provinces over the distribution formula, and, resultantly, the NFC Award failed to narrow down the vertical and horizontal resource gaps. At the district level, The National Reconstruction Bureau launched a decentralization programmed through Government Plan 2000, wherein it was acknowledged that without Fiscal Decentralization no authority is devolved, which further emphasizes the importance of transfer of funds to the lower tiers of government.The above paragraphs portray only one side of the picture. There are many studies which suggest that there is no direct relationship between fiscal devolution and economic growth and efficiency at the level of sub-national governments. As a matter of fact, there is also a strong case against the Fiscal federalism. It may lead to social inequalities as for instance, incomes and taxes may not be equitably distributed among the various regions of a country. Also, fixed costs are associated with running administrations of low-level governments .So, in low-income countries it may not be justified to spend substantial amount of the available funds on these expenses (Homme,1995). The relationship of Fiscal devolution and economic growth has been studied extensively in recent years. So, large volume of literature is available on the topic. Different relationships were studied to establish any clear relationship between Fiscal devolution and economic growth, but inconsistent results were obtained both for the developed and the developing economies.Some studies have shown positive relationship, others negative and still others no relationship at all between economic growth and fiscal autonomy. For Pakistan, too, studies have yet to find any clear relationship between financial decentralization and economic growth. Important contributions on this subject have been made by Zang and Zou(1998) ,Xie , Zou and Davoodi (1999) , Lin and Liu (2000) , Thieben (2001) , Martinez-Vazquez , McNab(2001) , Felenstine & Iwata (2005) and Kardar (2006) etc.This study identifies strengths and weaknesses of the existing Resource Distribution System (RDS) through historical review. It is generally believed that that proper information about the existing RDS will lead to better policy formulation, which will ultimately put the country on the road to prosperity. In this connection, it is also worthwhile to analyze the implications of the current resource distribution policies on the economic growth of the country. Thus, this study helps ascertain the extent of financial autonomy of the provinces and measures its long term benefits.Rest of the study is arranged as follows: Chapter 2 pertains to Literature review i. e. study conducted previously by other researchers on this topic; In chapter 3 theoretical background and econometric methodology for our estimation is being discussed; chapter 4 discusses sources of our data and construction of variables; chapter 5 covers results and interpretation thereof results and chapter 6 is abo ut the conclusion of research. Chapter 2 Literature Review 2. 1 IntroductionIn this chapter, we discuss the empirical studies related to our study i. e. work done previously by other researchers on this topic. 2. 2 Previous empirical studies The significance of relationship between the financial autonomy and economic growth can be gauged from the volume of literature available on this topic. Various important relationships were studied to establish clear relationship between the two, but inconsistent results were obtained both for the developed and the developing economies.For Pakistan too studies have yet to find any clear relationship between financial decentralization and economic growth. On leafing through the pages of available literature, one comes across valuable work on the topic, some of which is discussed in the following paras: Davoodi and Zou (1998) developed a theoretical model for studying the relationship between Fiscal autonomy and economic growth on the basis of ave raged panel data of 46 countries. The study showed a negative relationship between the two for developing countries.Zhang and Zou (1998), while using China’s provincial panel data for the period 1978-1992, found a negative association between provincial economic growth and the degree of financial autonomy over the past fifteen years. Philips and Woller (1997) studied the above referred relationship for seventeen developed and twenty three less developed countries on the data collected for the period 1974 to 1991. A negative weakly significant relationship was found for the developed world. However, no such relationship could be proved between the two variables for the less developed countries.Xie , Zou and Davoodi (1999) observed that there is a highly insignificant relationship between Fiscal Decentralization and economic growth for the United States, which the authors attributed to the fact that the country had already reached optimal level of fiscal autonomy and thus no fu rther progress on this line was possible. Thieban (2001) made use of OECD countries cross sectional data for the period 1975 to 1995, but the study failed to establish any link between revenue decentralization of the low-level governments and economic growth of these countries.Martinez –Vazquez and Mc Nab (2001) concluded that the relationship between fiscal decentralization and economic growth is still unclear, and that little attention has been paid to indirect factors through which fiscal devolution may influence economic growth. In contrast to the above findings, Lin and Liu (2000), while using panel data of 28 provinces for the period 1970 to 1993, arrived at the conclusion that there exists a positive relationship between fiscal decentralization and economic growth in China. The authors noted that the impressive growth of china for the last twenty years can be linked to fiscal reforms.Ebel and Yilmaz (2001), observed that Fiscal design of OECD countries is unable to exp lain Fiscal decentralization in true sense. Martinez –Vazquez and Mc Nab (2003), on the basis of panel data, covering the period 1972-1997, studied the direct and indirect relationship between fiscal decentralization, economic growth and macroeconomic stability . They arrived at the conclusion that devolution minimizes the inflation rate, has no direct influence on economic growth, and has positive indirect effect on growth as it results in on macroeconomic stability.Justin Yifu and Zhiqiang (2000), investigated the implications of fiscal decentralization of economic growth in China, and found that it has made remarkable contribution to economic growth. This finding is in conformity with the hypothesis that Fiscal devolution enhances economic efficiency. Fielstentein and Iwata (2005), while using VAR (Vector Auto regressive) model found that there is a relationship between decentralization and macro economic performance in China. They concluded that Fiscal decentralization is positively related to growth in the period after the war, and has negative effects on the inflation rate after the 1970s.While using the cross country data for 78 countries, Mello and Barenstein (2001) observed that as the share of receipts, including non-tax revenue, grants and transfer of funds, from the federal government increases in the total provincial revenues, the relationship between financial devolution and governance grows stronger. Shah (1991) pointed out that poor performance in most of the developing countries in the last 40 years can be attributed to highly centralized regimes.Huther and Shah (1998) noted that good governance and fiscal decentralization are positively related, which in turn may enhance economic growth. Akai and Sakata (2002) used single country data and predicted that fiscal decentralization plays a role in economic development. They pointed out that in the United States, high government spending was required in the initial phases of economic develop ment, therefore, any analysis that took into consideration this period is bound to overestimate the role of central government in the economic development.This led Xie et al (1999) to declare that decentralization has adverse effect on economic development. Jorge Martinez-Vazquez and Mark Rider (2006) pointed out the structure of financial system plays a pivotal role in determining the conduct and performance of low-level governments, which indirectly influence economic growth of a country. According to them, though both China and India show great financial decentralization, the central governments restrict the fiscal autonomy of the sub-national governments through conditional grants and inadequate powers to raise revenue.Thus, the regional governments are forced to use extra budgetary allocations to overcome their financial constraints, which results in waste of resources. These structural infirmities in the financial systems entail profligacy and unproductive expenditure policies , which may hamper the growth rate in the future in both the countries. Nobuo Akai, Yukihiro Nishimura and Masayo Sakata (2007), while using panel data of the fifty states of the US, showed that fiscal decentralization minimizes the variance of GDP growth due to decentralization among various levels of government.They also observed that there exists a negative relationship between fiscal devolution and economic volatility. Hiroko Uchimora and Yurika Suzuki (2009) studied Fiscal Decentralization in the Philippines after the promulgation of Local Government code (1991) . This study examined the fiscal relationship between the central and sub national governments by using the indicators of Fiscal decentralization. According to their findings, in the Philippines, the responsibility to incur expenditures by the local governments is not accompanied by corresponding strengthening of the fiscal capacity.As a result, local governments rely heavily on fiscal transfers from the central governm ent and Internal Revenues Allotment, which render the local finance unstable. Atushi Alimi(2004) Although , in theory, decentralization promises efficient provision of public services at local level, empirical evidence gives a mixed picture regarding its implications on economic growth. They attempted to resolve this inconsistency by using instrumental technique on the data for the period 1997 to 2001.In this study, fiscal decentralization is measured in terms of the ratio between local expenditure to total government expenditure. The result showed a significant positive relationship between per capita growth rate and Fiscal decentralization. Perraton, J. and Wells, p. (2003), in their paper, ‘Multi level governance and Economic cohesion’ noted three general trends in economic policy making: the transfer of powers to supranational institution in economic policy formulation, e. g. he formation of the European Union and World Trade Organization; secondly, almost all devel oped countries have established regional organizations, to which powers of economic policy-making have been devolved. In the transition states, there is a growing tendency towards decentralization to curtail expenditures and to make the governments more accountable; thirdly, the governments are now inclined to reduce their sizes and make alternate arrangements for governance through NGOs. This concept of governance is referred to as multi-level governance.In Pakistan’s case, Fiscal Federalism has been studied in detail. According to Anwar Shah, World Bank (Dec, 2006), there are two ways of transferring funds from the Centre to the provinces: assigning share of the federal revenues to the provinces at a pre-determined rate and direct transfer of funds (other than revenue) from the Centre to the provinces. According to him, the revenue sharing system in Pakistan affects the transfers in a lump sum and predictable manner to the federating units, which are at liberty to use these funds the way they choose.The author further argues that NFC places greater responsibility of revenue collection on the Federal government, thereby making the tax machinery efficient and tax compliance cost effective. The Revenue sharing system may have its merits, but it is also associated with certain demerits. For example, the provinces enjoy vast discretion in the utilization of funds, but have no control over the amount of funds they receive from the centre ; the federal government cannot influence the provinces to set priorities for achieving uniform standards in reas like health and Education; the provinces receive the funds without any strings attached to it , therefore, they feel less accountable while spending the funds; the share received by the provinces have no relation with the expenditures they incur, as usually the expenditures outgrow the rate at which the Federal revenue grows. Nighat Bilgrami and Mahpara Sadaqat (2006) have given an account of evolution and worki ng of NFC Award ever since its introduction in 1951. According to the authors, with the exception of 1974 Award, there is a growing tendency in increase of revenue transfer to the provinces.The major step forward in this direction was the 1991 NFC Award, wherein new taxes were included in the divisible pool. In addition, as envisaged in Article 161 of the Constitution, royalty on crude oil and surcharge on gas were also transferred to the provinces. This caused greater decentralization of funds, which over a period of time played a pivotal role in improving service delivery in health, education and irrigation etc sectors. The paper identifies various forms of fund transfers from the Federal government to the provinces.These include Revenue Sharing Transfers, Straight transfers, Recurring Grants, Development Grants and loans. The authors have also elucidated that how resources are transferred in Pakistan from the federal government to the provinces in four ways: from the centre to th e provinces, from provincial to local governments, from the federal government to the local governments and from local to local governments. The paper also gives a rationale for transfers of resources from the federal to provincial and municipal governments.At the end of the paper, the authors have suggested that smaller provinces be provided with soft loans and factors like backwardness and poverty be also considered while allocating the resources. Moreover, the provinces should be allowed to generate revenues that fall within their domain. Iftikhar Ahmed, Usman Mustafa and Mahmood Khalid (2007) have dilated upon the evolution of resource distribution over time. According to them the divisible pool has been expanded by the inclusion of more taxes.However, as population is the sole criteria for the distribution of resources through NFC awards, it has given birth to serious differences among the provinces. The paper says that resources are transferred from the centre to the provinces in two ways: Systematic or Formula Based transfer, comprising of revenue sharing and Random transfer, including grants, executive discretionary funds and Parliamentarian funds etc. According to the authors, with the passage of time the federal government has become more centralized, thereby adversely affecting the efficiency of the provincial governments.The federal government has got engaged in activities that purely fall within the purview of provinces. These include irrigation, roads, culture, tourism, youth affairs etc. This has increased the burden on federal government. The Federal government collects 93 % of the revenue but expends only 72%, whereas the provinces generate just 7% but spend 28%. The argument behind greater revenue collection by the centre is that it is more efficient in revenue collection than the provinces. But this argument is flawed as the provincial and local governments are left with lesser opportunities to collect revenue.This results in the dependency of the provinces on the federal government for transfer of resources. In this paper, NFC Award has also been criticized in that the criteria for resource distribution are mainly population. Elsewhere in the world, other factors like backwardness, population density, and revenue generation are also considered while devising a formula for distribution of resources. According to the authors, the major shift towards fiscal decentralization appeared in the 1996 NFC Award, whereby all duties and taxes were included in the divisible pool.By so doing transparency and predictability in resource distribution was though enhanced, yet the resource distribution formula between the federal and provincial governments changed little. The paper says that resources distribution has never been taken seriously. Only one criterion, that is population, has been followed for resource distribution, that’s why the NFC Award has failed to resolve the problem of Fiscal Decentralization. Usman Mustafa ( 2011) has highlighted the importance of federal form of government and has argued that even European Union has the characteristics of federalism.While referring to works of notable authors on the subject, it has been argued that Fiscal Decentralization increases efficiency, transparency and accountability. According to the author, in Pakistan’s case, there are pre-federalism (from 1947-71) and post federalism (from 1973 onwards) periods. In the first perid, the authority was centralized (one unit), whereas the second period is characterized by the march towards decentralization of powers from the centre to the provinces. In this context, the author argues that NFC Award is a step forward towards decentralization.He, however, criticizes population being suitable criteria for resource distribution between the centre and the provinces. In order to remove the grievances of the smaller provinces, a historical decision was taken in the 7th NFC Award on Dec, 2009 at Gawadar, to whic h all the provinces agreed. In this award, the demands of the smaller provinces were accepted, and a multifactor formula was devised. In the formula, factors like poverty, underdevelopment and inverse population density were also included for resource distribution. Moreover, the Federation sacrificed more that 10% of its share in favour of the provinces.It was also agreed that collection charges received by the Federal government on revenue would be curtailed from the existing 5% to 1%. This will increase the volume of net transfer of revenue from the federal to the provincial governments. All these decisions taken in the 7th NFC Award will contribute favourably towards Fiscal Decentralization in Pakistan. According to Kardar (2006), local governments have significance both in the context of Devolution plan and failure of central and provincial governments to deliver quality services to the masses ever since the emergence of Pakistan.He further argued that though legislation on devo lution is a landmark achievement, the biggest challenge is to settle the row over powers between the provinces and district governments. Dr. Shahnawaz Malik, Mahmood-ul-Hassan and Shahzad Hussein analyzed the relationship between Fiscal decentralization and economic growth for the period 1971-2005. They obtained mixed results on the basis of different variables used in analysis. The study further showed that with the continuous rise in the share of provincial government revenues and expenditures, economic growth slows down.Naeem-ur-Rehman Khattak, Iftikhar Ahmed and Jangraiz Khan, while using time series data, for the period 1980 to 2007, analyzed the resource distribution, and studied the impact of financial decentralization on the economic growth of Pakistan. According to them, the divisible pool has expanded over the years by the inclusion of more taxes in it. They pointed out that the resource distribution mechanism failed to affect economic growth positively, and suggested that the distribution formula be revisited, having regard to factors like tax collection and backwardness of the provinces.They further suggested that more powers be delegated to the provinces to raise their own revenues. Chapter 3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND ECONMETRIC METHODOLOGY 3. 1 Introduction In this chapter we discuss the theory which guides our research, variables of our model, type of statistical relationship and the model we will use for estimation. 3. 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Various forms of Decentralization. It refers to the delegation of powers and functions from the central to low-level governments. There are three main forms of decentralization (JICA 2008): . 2. 1. Decentralization It is the weakest type of decentralization, and refers to the transfer of decision making powers along with financial and management responsibilities from the officials in the centre to those serving in the local /regional offices. 3. 2. 2. Delegation Here the powers are delegated to the auton omous bodies, including corporations, housing authorities’ etc. , working under the supervision of the central government. These organizations enjoy vast discretion and decision making powers. 3. 2. 3.Devolution It is the gradual transfer of administrative, financial and political authority to the local bodies, which exercise their powers and functions within certain geographical confines. It has three main constituents, as discussed below: a) Political decentralization It refers to the shifting of powers and authority to local bodies, run by local political representatives. It has a well-established system of political decision-making and accountability at the local level. b) Administrative decentralizationIt is the form of devolution whereby staff of line ministry is dissociated from their corresponding ministries and brought under the control of the local administration. This is done through establishing local pay roll, which empowers them to reward and punish the staff. c ) Fiscal decentralization It refers to the shifting of authority and responsibility to the sub-level governments with regard to decision-making on distribution of financial resources. This also includes the powers to raise local revenue.Fiscal decentralization has attracted great attention, among the economic circles, especially for improving service delivery at the local level. The main objectives of Fiscal decentralization include efficient utilization of resources, effective service delivery, macroeconomic stability and economic growth. With these objectives in view, the developing world is following the principle of Subsidiarity, which emphasizes that authority should rest with the lower tiers of government for effective use, and that the responsibility of incurring expenditures should match with adequate financing.Decentralization leads to efficient utilization of funds through improvement in governance, as lower strata of government can better assess people’s problems a nd know their priorities. Decentralization enhances participation of local population as the beneficiaries are directly involved in planning the allocation of funds. Increased decentralization gives birth to democratization, which keeps the government close to the masses, thereby making it more accountable. 3. 3 Various theories regarding decentralizationThe above narrated advantages, and many more not discussed here, emphasize the importance of Fiscal decentralization. But it was since the publishing of Tiebout’s article, â€Å"A pure theory of local Expenditure† that this concept has gained great popularity among the theorists, and the volume of literature on this topic has increased tremendously. According to Tibeout (1956), Fiscal decentralization improves production efficiency through greater mass mobilization. In 1959 Musgrave pointed out that the role of government is to bring stability to the market and effect the redistribution of income.He further argued that efficient utilization of resources can be secured only when local tastes and choices are taken into consideration. Oates (1972) pointed out that people living in different localities have peculiar tastes and preferences for public service, therefore, local governments, as against central government, being better informed, will provide better services to its citizens. This concept is called Oates â€Å"Decentralization Theorem†, according to which economic efficiency can be enhanced by decentralizing the availability of public goods and services.Thus, the central government should be responsible for devising a national policy and providing efficient levels of government for distribution of goods . (Oates,2005) So, equipped with the requisite paraphernalia , the sub-national governments are in a better position to put in place welfare-maximizing policies. Cremer, Estach and Seebright (1994), stated that government at the centre cannot reach the information about local tastes a nd choices. Thus, it is through Fiscal Decentralization that local agents can bring about efficient supply of goods and services to their constituencies.Almost identical views were expressed by Qian and Weingast (1997), who opined that decentralization puts a check on budget expansion by promoting competition and strengthening accountability, which effects supply of goods and services in an efficient manner. Having said this, there is always a tendency among the local political agents to enlarge the scope of public goods and services at the cost of other jurisdictions. Rodden (2003) attributed this predilection to the type of decentralization being followed.If decentralization is dependent on self-generated tax revenue, smaller governments emerge; and if transfer of funds occurs from the centre, it results in budget expansion. Though from economic and political point of view there are many benefits of Fiscal decentralization, yet it is not a cure for all ills. For instance, Fiscal D ecentralization entails loss of Economies of Scale and loosens control over scarce resources. From it follows that centralization and Decentralization are not alternatives, rather the countries should find a balance between the two as per their requirements. . 4. Rationale for Fiscal Transfer in Pakistan The first reason is the general perception that the federal government is better equipped to collect major taxes, but is inefficient to collect smaller taxes. Also, the federal government may undertake major projects, but fail to deliver on smaller projects. Hence, the efficiency criteria must be followed while deciding allocation of means and responsibilities. The second reason for resource transfer from the centre to the provinces is that the latter lack the resources to finance the provision of even basic services.In the last ten years, the average revenue generated by the centre, provinces and municipalities stand at 89%, 5% and 6% respectively. As against the revenue generation , the share in recurring expenditure of the federal, provincial and municipal governments is 74%, 23% and 4% respectively. As regards developmental expenditure, the share of these governments is as follows: Federal government 65%, provincial government 25% and municipal governments 6%. These figures indicate that the provinces have limited resources vis-a-vis the amount of expenditure they incur.This necessitates the transfer of resources from federal to lower-tiers of government. Another reason that can be attributed to the allocation of resources among the different levels of government is Adequacy of Revenue. This concept refers to the capability of government not only to generate the initial revenue required to start a project but also to its ability to sustain it. In Pakistan’s case, Adequacy of revenue does not exist; hence transfer of resources to the lower tiers of government is necessary if they are to undertake any such projects.The fourth reason of transfer funds f rom the centre to the provinces is that there are taxes which though provincial in nature but is collected by the federal government, for example Sales Tax. Another rationale for transfer of funds is that federal government uses certain taxes for the overall stabilization of the economy; hence they should be under the control of the federal government. [NFC AWARDS Commentary and Agenda, Nighat Bilagarami, Jaffery and Mahpara Sadaqat (2006)]. 3. 5 ECONMETRIC METHODOLOGY 3. 5. 1Augmented Dicky Fuller (ADF) Test In this study a time series data is being used.Since this kind of data is usually non-stationary in nature, we first test it for stationarity or non-stationarity. For this purpose, an enhanced version of Dicky fuller Test, known as Augmented Dicky Fuller Test, is being employed. The ADF includes extra lagged terms of the dependant variable so as to remove auto-correlation. The following equations denote the three possible forms of ADF Test. i) Without any constant and trend ?yt =? *yt-1+i=1p? i? yt-i+et ii) Constant with non trend ?yt=a+? *yt-1i=1p? i+? yt-1+et iii) Constant with trend ?yt=a+? t+? *yt-1+i=1p? i+? yt-1+etOf the above equations, (iii) represents a more generalized form of ADF Test. Mackinnon(1991) gave critical values for the DF test The critical values for the ADF Test are the same as those for Dickey Fuller Test. If the DF Statistical value is smaller than the critical value, Null hypothesis of a unit root is rejected, which suggests that the yt is stationary process or the variables are stationary. If on running the ADF Test the variables are found non-stationary in their original levels of series, the variables are made stationary in their first difference level of the series. . 5. 2 Ordinary least square model (OLS) Once the variables are made stationary, estimation is made by employing Ordinary least square model (OLS). This model is suitable for ascertaining linear interdependencies in a time series data. Here it is also worthwhile to discuss Regression model. A multiple linear regression model estimates value of dependant variable (also called response variable) on the basis of independent variables (also called explanatory variables). But there is always a difference in estimated and observed values.Therefore, a Regression model also possess unexplained variable, also called error term, which measures the difference between observed and estimated values. y= b+b1 x1+ b2 x2+ b x3 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ +ei A regression model will be â€Å"best fit† if the difference between observed and estimated value is minimum. We cannot take error term by simply adding all the difference between observed and estimated value because it may contain both positive and negative values which can cancel the effect of each other. So, we take the square of error terms which leads us to OLS . i. e. minimum squared difference.OLS is useful for structural inference and policy analysis. For the purpose of Structural Analysis of data, cert ain assumptions regarding the causality of data are made. These are : error term (i) is normally distributed (ii) has zero expected value of mean (iii) has constant variance in each time period and for all values of X and (iv) its value in one time period is unrelated to its value in another time period. OLS is a very simple technique by which we can calculate the coefficient of each variable in other words it gives us the impact of one variable on another variable, which is summarized by impulse response function. | | | | | Chapter 4 DATA AND VARIABLE 4. 1 INTRODUCTION This chapter covers how data is collected, what are sources of our data and how variables have been constructed variables for our estimation. 4. 2 Data type For the purpose of studying the relationship between Fiscal decentralization and economic growth, secondary data is being utilized. 4. 3 Sources of data For the purpose of this study the following sources have been utilized. i) Issues of â€Å"Economic survey of Pakistan† ii)World Development Indicators iii)Ten years in Pakistan Statistics† (1983) iv)UNDP Human Development Report, 2007. )Hand book of Statistics on Pakistan Economy (2005)† 4. 4 Construction of variables Economic growth of the country is taken as dependant variable. It is measured in terms of per capita Log of per capita gross domestic product (LYP), which is rebased by the year 2000 market prices. The variable is expressed in real terms using GDP deflator to ascertain the pattern of economic growth over the years. The Fiscal decentralization is captured on the ratio of Provincial share in Total Revenue to the Total Revenue (PRFR). The data source for these variables is â€Å"Economic survey of Pakistan and covers the period from 1964 to 2008.As regards investment, it is captured by the Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) and data is taken from â€Å"Pakistan Economic Survey† Moreover, a variable for trade openness (OPN) is also used in the estimat ion model. This variable is obtained by adding imports and exports and dividing the same by LYP (at market prices). Here, too, the source of data is â€Å"Economic Survey of Pakistan† Other variables in the estimation model are Tax to GDP ratio (TGDP) and GINI co-efficient, the latter being used to calculate income equality and its source is UNDP Human Development Report. Chapter 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . 1 INTRODUCTION The section consists of results and their interpretation. In para 5. 1, 5. 2 and 5. 3 Stationarity of data, Autocorrelation and the results of OLS model respectively have been discussed. 5. 2 Unit Root test In a time series data, the major problem is the non-stationarity of variables. So, before estimation, a test is applied to make the variables stationary. For this purpose various tests can be employed, but in our case we have used Augmented Dickey Fuller test, the results of which are shown in table 5. 1 below. Table 5. 1 UNIT ROOT TEST| Non stationary var iables| ADF-value| 5% Critical value| Gfcf| -1. 693492| -2. 9303| Gini| -2. 462911| -2. 9303| Lpy| 0. 863730| -2. 9303| PRFR| -2. 206432| -2. 9303| TGDP| 0. 158213| -2. 9303| Stationary variables| | ADF-value| Critical value| Gfcf| -3. 997577| -2. 9320| Gini| -4. 766215| -2. 9320| Lpy| -4. 632922| -2. 9320| OPN| -3. 453532| -2. 9303| PRFR| -3. 662186| -2. 9320| TGDP| -3. 01612| -2. 9320| Gfcf- Gross fixed capital formation, Gini- Income inequality, Lpy- Log of GDP, OPN- Openness to trade (export+import/GDP), PRFR- Ratio of provincial shares in total revenue to total revenue, TGDP- Tax to GDP ratio.At the level, all the variables except â€Å"OPN† were found non-stationary, and were, therefore, stationarized at First difference level by using ADF Test. 5 . 3 TEST FOR AUTOCORRELATION Autocorrelation tells about the relationship between two or more error terms in the model. For unbiased estimation, autocorrelation must be zero. If there exists problem of autocorrelation, it has to be removed. For this purpose, two hypothesis are constructed : one, H0: Co-Var(u,u+1)=0,there is no autocorrelation between the error terms and second, Ha: Co-Var(u,u+1)not equal to zero, meaning there is a problem of autocorrelation.To check autocorrelation in our model, we have used Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test (BG TEST), as shown in table 5. 2. According to the table, probability of F-statistic is significant at 5%, so we reject the hypothesis that cov (ut, ut+1) is equal to zero. In other words, there is autocorrelation problem in our model. In order to remove the autocorrelation problem, we have applied ARMA model with autocorrelation through AR (1), AR (3) and MA (2). Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test:| F-statistic| 4. 781666| Probability| 0. 001241| Obs*R-squared| 20. 50376| Probability| 0. 002252|Probability of F-statistic is significant at 5%, so we reject the hypothesis that cov (ut, ut+1) is equal to zero. It means there is autocorrelation proble m in our model. 5 . 4 ESTIMATION The results of the estimation with OLS are tabulated in Table 5. 3 below: Dependent variable:LPYMethod: Least Squares| Date: 03/25/12 Time: 11:13| | | | | | Variable| Coefficient| t-Statistic| Prob. | | GFCF| 0. 004693| 3. 806074| 0. 0006| | GINI| -0. 324275| -2. 919698| 0. 0065| | OPN| 0. 000254| 0. 468847| 0. 6425| | PRFR| -0. 000173| -0. 517278| 0. 6086| | TGDP| -0. 003194| -0. 809929| 0. 4242| | | | | | | R-squared| 0. 97793| Prob(F-statistic)| 0. 000000| Adjusted R-squared| 0. 997081| | | Durbin-Watson stat| 1. 705104| | | | | | | In the model ‘’R^2’’ shows strength of the regression line, which means how much important variables are covered by a model or how well variation in independent variables explains the variation in dependent variable. For time series analysis â€Å"R^2’’ value must be greater than 0. 70 or 70%, which means the model must explain at least 70% of the total variation in dependent v ariable. In our results, â€Å"R^2=99%† value is greater than 70%, so 99% of variation LPY is explained by our variables i. . GFCF, GINI, OPN, PRFR, TGDP. But the values in the 3rd column against each variable show â€Å"t† values. If the t value, in absolute form, is greater than â€Å"2†, the relationship between the variables is significant. In our case, the financial autonomy is measured in terms of â€Å"Ratio of Provincial share in Total Revenue (PRFR)†, whereas the Economic growth is captured on the variable LPY. It is evident from the table that the relationship between LPY (dependent) and PRFR (independent) is insignificant because the â€Å"devalues, in absolute form, are less than â€Å"2†.It implies that LPY is not influenced by PRFR. In other words, in Pakistan’s case, Fiscal decentralization has no bearing on economic growth. The model shows that GFCF and GINI with variables have ‘’t’’ value greater than 2 in absolute form affect economic growth. Durbin-watson value in the table tells us about the problem of auto-correlation in the model. If the value of Durbin-watson test is between 1. 7 and 2. 2 there will be no auto-correlation. In our table its value 1. 7, so we say that the problem of auto-correlation has been removed.CHAPTER NO: 06 CONCLUSION This study focuses on identifying the impact of fiscal decentralization on economic growth through compilation of its historical trends. It is generally believed that that proper information about the existing fiscal decentralization system will lead to better policy formulation, which will ultimately put the country on the road to prosperity. In this regard, it is also worthwhile to analyze the implications of the current fiscal decentralization policy on the economic growth of the country.Thus, this study helps ascertain the extent of financial autonomy of the provinces and measures its long term benefits. In this study secondary d ata has been used, which covers the period from 1964 to 2008. Provincial share in total revenue (PRFR), GFCF- Gross fixed capital formation, Gini- Income inequality, OPN- Openness to trade (export+import/GDP), PRFR- Ratio of provincial shares in total revenue to total revenue, TGDP- Tax to GDP ratio are dependant variables, whereas LPY (Log of GDP) is dependent variable in the data.We used OLS model for our estimation, the results of which revealed that only GFCF and GINI have significant impact on GDP growth. On the other hand the influence of, OPN, TGDP and PRFR on economic growth (LPY) are insignificant. As PRFR and LPY measure the extent of fiscal decentralization and Economic growth respectively, we conclude that economic growth in Pakistan does not depend on fiscal decentralization. This may be due to the fact the Resource Distribution Formula has been mainly based on population. The results of other factors, included of late in the NFC Award, are yet to be seen.It is, therefo re, proposed that not only the impact of population in the distribution formula be diluted by the inclusion of other factors, being emphasized by the smaller provinces, but also the powers of the provinces with regard to revenue generation be enhanced. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. The words, Financial devolution, financial autonomy and Financial /fiscal decentralization are being used interchangeably in this study. [ 2 ]. In this discussion ,the words, federating unit, unit, province, sub-national government and low-level government will be used interchangeably.